A robust, high-content NAM for repeatable and predictive developmental and reproductive toxicity assessment in C. elegans
Abstract Developmental and reproductive toxicity (DART) assessment is essential for product safety evaluation but relies heavily on vertebrate models that are costly, time consuming, and resource intensive. Although Caenorhabditis elegans has emerged as a promising new approach methodology (NAM) for rapid, cost-effective, whole-organism toxicology, broader adoption has been limited by the lack of high-resolution, rapid imaging approaches, limited endpoints, and insufficient evidence supporting assay robustness. To overcome these limitations, we developed vivoDART, a multiparametric imaging-based DART assay designed to be accurate, efficient, robust, and sensitive. Building on our machine learning-accelerated developmental toxicity platform, vivoDART uses microfluidic-assisted, high-resolution brightfield imaging to quantify six developmental and reproductive endpoints for comprehensive DART analysis. Developmental endpoints are derived from automated body-dimension analysis, whereas reproductive endpoints are obtained by quantifying total in utero embryo number and classifying embryos as early- or late-stage relative to the twofold stage. The assay directly assesses sublethal DART phenotypes while minimizing reliance on non-specific apical endpoints such as lethality. vivoDART demonstrated high repeatability, with mean coefficients of variation of 1–5% for developmental endpoints and 6–17% for reproductive endpoints, supporting high statistical power. Assay validation performed using DMSO, methylmercury, and propiconazole involved phenotyping ~ 400,000 embryos across ~ 9,200 worms. Densely sampled concentration–response curves enabled EC x prediction with narrow confidence intervals and captured subtle to strong effects across a broad dynamic range of 1.0–237 µM…